Russell Stafford – Page 9

South African Bulbs for Indoor Growing

*Lachenalia aloides* var. *quadricolor* is beautiful and flamboyant.

Most Cape bulbs follow the seasonal rhythms of their native land, beginning to push leaves in late summer or fall (whether watered or not), and flowering at their appointed time in late fall, winter, or early spring. Their flowers also tend to share a certain likeness, with many species bearing heads of narrow, tubular, brightly colored blooms on stout scapes – the better to attract and accommodate the long-billed, brilliantly hued sunbirds that pollinate them.

Cape Hyacinth

Veltheimia bracteata (commonly known as forest lily or cape hyacinth) beautifully exemplifies these Cape bulb traits. Handsome in their own right, the lustrous, wavy-edged, strap-shaped leaves (with perky wavy-edged margins) emerge from fleshy, tennis-ball-sized bulbs in late summer. In midwinter, red-hot-poker heads of tubular pink flowers develop on fleshy purple-flushed scapes that slowly elongate to 18 inches or so. Flowering peaks about Valentine’s Day, but continues for several weeks before and after. An almost indestructible house plant, Veltheimia bracteata thrives in bright indirect light, relatively tight quarters, and a porous potting mix (such as Fafard® Professional Potting Mix with RESiLIENCE). Shallow planting (with the “shoulders” exposed) suits the bulbs well. Plants prefer a dry, shady summer rest after the foliage begins to flag in late spring.

Lachenalia

Showy, tubular blooms also make a frequent appearance in the genus Lachenalia. Lachenalia aloides is perhaps the most flamboyant, flaunting proportionately large golden-orange blooms that nod on 10-inch scapes in mid- to late winter. Some forms of this species take the flamboyance one step further, adding horizontal bands of crimson, yellow, purple, and green to the floral color scheme. Variety quadricolor is one such dazzler, with orange-based blooms that shade to yellow at their midriffs and purple-red at their tips. Flowers of the cultivar ‘Nelsonii’ have brilliant red buds that turn lemon-yellow with lime-green tips as they expand. Purple splotches ornament its stems and leaves, another characteristic of many forms of this striking species. Other highly ornamental species include Lachenalia bulbifera, with lipstick-red flowers that open around Christmas, and Lachenalia rubida, whose freckled, rose-pink, late fall blooms are the earliest in the genus. Lachenalia hybrids are also now available, most notably in the form of the African Beauty Series (including ‘Namakwa’, ‘Rupert’, and ‘Romaud’).
All of the above lachenalias prosper in containers. Shallow planting (one inch deep or so) in a porous potting mix is best, with moderate watering during the growing season. Lachenalias like it cool and sunny while in growth but should be moved to a dry, shady location when dormant.

Lachenalia fanciers often find themselves drawn to the many species that flower in less gaudy but equally seductive hues (sometimes with fragrance thrown in). The flowers of Lachenalia viridiflora, for example, are of a luminous, other-worldly turquoise-green, making for a singular late fall to early winter display. These lesser-known and lesser-grown Lachenalia species can be somewhat tricky in cultivation, but all are worth the effort.

Haemanthus

Not all Cape bulbs fit the tubular mold. Haemanthus albiflos is a striking example, brandishing white, up-facing shaving-brush flowers on short fleshy stems in fall or early winter. The leathery, tongue-shaped, evergreen leaves are also attractive. This drought-tolerant species is practically indestructible if shallowly planted in a porous potting mix in a bright but not too warm location.

Oxalis

North American gardeners tend to think of Oxalis species (commonly known as wood sorrel) as horticultural thugs. Many Cape Oxalis, however, are of a far more rarified (and less invasive) plane, featuring jewel-like flowers and lush, ornamental foliage. Oxalis purpurea deserves a place on every cool sunny windowsill in need of winter color. Its numerous varieties flower in a rainbow of colors, from white to rose-pink to raspberry-red to lemon-yellow, and its rich green “shamrock” leaves are sometimes suffused or blotched with contrasting colors. The cultivar ‘Ken Aslet’ – distinguished by felted silvery leaves and brilliant yellow flowers – is usually sold as this species (but probably belongs under Oxalis melanosticta). Also invaluable for winter bloom are lilac-flowered, fuzzy-leaved Oxalis hirta; candy-striped Oxalis versicolor (with white, carmine-edged petals); and numerous other Cape Oxalis. All flourish in a porous potting mix kept reasonably moist in winter and dry and relatively cool in summer.

Look for these and other winter-blooming Cape bulbs in mainstream and specialty plant catalogs, as well as in local greenhouses and grocery stores. A touch of South Africa can do wonders for a dreary winter’s day.

Trees with Beautiful Winter Bark

A number of hardy tree species possess bark that is eye-catchingly handsome, particularly in winter, when most everything else in the garden is dressed in frostbitten drab. Such trees are essential for bringing defining structure and color and texture to the winter landscape.

Maples

The maples have given us a number of trees that possess arresting bark, including the iconic paperbark maple (Acer griseum). In its best forms, this highly variable Chinese native slowly matures into a 25- to 35-foot, round-headed specimen with polished, flaking, cinnamon-brown bark that is especially striking when frosted with snow. The three-parted leaves assume sunset tones rather late in fall.

Paperbark maple interbreeds with another trifoliate East Asian maple (Acer nikoense), which has striking green streaked bark, to produce hybrids with finely shredded bark of a somewhat paler cinnamon-brown. A third species in the three-leaved maple tribe, three-flowered maple (Acer triflorum), has shaggily flaking, silvery- to creamy-gray bark. It, too, is a small to medium tree, perfectly sized for most residential gardens in USDA Cold Hardiness Zones 5b to 8. Sunny or lightly shaded sites work best.

Snake-bark maples constitute another group well worth growing for their colorful stems. Arguably the most beautiful is red-vein maple (Acer rufinerve). Some selections of this fast-growing, medium-sized tree have luminous lime-green bark marked with paler longitudinal fissures. Abundant, colorfully winged fruits dangle from the branches late summer and early fall. This Japanese native is closely related to our native moosewood (Acer pensylvanicum), which is sometimes represented in gardens by the red-stemmed cultivar ‘Erythrocladum’. Both do well in sun or partial shade.

Stewartias

Like the maples, the genus Stewartia is centered in temperate East Asia and eastern North America and contains several species with beautiful bark. The best known, Japanese stewartia (Stewartia pseudocamellia), bears white, camellia-like flowers in early summer, and oval leaves that go fiery in fall. Its most notable feature, however, is its multicolored bark, which exfoliates into mottled patches of gray and bronze and pinkish-tan. Other, far lesser known stewartias (including Stewartia rostrata and S. sinensis) are also beautifully mottled. Also noteworthy is Stewartia monadelpha, a relatively slight species whose bark resembles that of paperbark maple. All these stewartias are small, rather spreading trees that make good choices for sunny to partly shaded niches in modest-sized gardens. Most are hardy to USDA Zone 5b.

Lacebark Elm

Japanese Stewartia bark — Japanese stewartia

A diverse species that occurs over a wide range of Asia in a wide variety of shapes and sizes, lacebark elm (Ulmus parvifolia) has given rise to numerous cultivars, including some dwarf selections that make ideal bonsai subjects. For the garden, forms with exfoliating bark are undoubtedly the most desirable, their trunks maturing into a stewartia-like patchwork. All forms flourish in full sun, and most will weather USDA Zone 5b conditions.

Persian Ironwood

Also notable for its showy patchwork bark (and also hardy into USDA Zone 5b) is a medium-sized tree from the witch-hazel family, Persian ironwood (Parrotia persica). Typically multi-stemmed and wide-spreading, it bears leaves that resemble common witch-hazel and produces curious little early spring flowers composed of clusters of purple stamens. Fall color is often a spectacular blaze of orange, red, and smoky purple, with the brightest coloration occurring in full sun.

Amur Chokecherry

One of the best ornamental trees for sunny niches in especially chilly regions (USDA zones 3 to 6), Amur chokecherry (Prunus maackii) grows rapidly into a medium-sized tree with lustrous, shredding, tawny-orange bark that fairly glows in the winter landscape. Rounded clusters of white flowers open in spring and are followed by small black fruits. Although relatively short-lived and prone to damage from heavy wet snow and ice, it is still unsurpassed as a four-season tree for cold-climate gardens.

Peking Tree Lilac

A. nikoense x A. griseum bark — *A. nikoense* x *A. griseum*

The Peking tree lilac (Syringa pekinensis) resembles Amur chokecherry both in its exceptional cold-hardiness (USDA zones 3 to 7) and in the exfoliating, coppery bark of its finest forms (such as ‘Copper Curls’). But this variable Manchurian native offers greater longevity and clay-soil tolerance, as well as a bevy of fleecy, fragrant early-summer flowers. Typically multi-stemmed, it grows at a moderate rate to 20 to 30 feet tall, prospering in most soils in full sun.

Amur Maackia

Fafard Premium Natural & Organic Compost Blend pack

Copper-tinged bark and USDA Zone 3 hardiness are also among the virtues of another small tree from the harsh climes of Manchuria, Maackia amurensis. Amur maackia’s bark is remarkable not only for its rust-brown coloration but also for the diamond-shaped exfoliations that decorate its surface, inviting closer inspection. Upright candelabras of dull white flowers deck its branches in early summer. The pinnately compound foliage of this single-stemmed, round-crowned, leguminous tree is an attractive dark green in summer but offers little in the way of fall color. Growth is slow, even in ideal conditions (full sun and fertile, well-drained soil).

Plant one of these trees with beautiful winter bark next spring, and it will bring much-needed color and presence to the garden next winter (and for years to come). To get it off to a good start, give it a planting hole that’s about the same depth as the root ball, and three times as wide. Amend the backfilled soil with a bit of balanced fertilizer, as well as a humus-rich amendment such as Fafard Natural & Organic Compost Blend if the soil is excessively sandy or heavy.

All About Amaryllis

The bright, bold blooms of Amaryllis add to the holiday festivities. (photo by Maureen Gilmer)

Amaryllis are emblems of the winter holiday season, their bold, flamboyant flowers decorating everything from greeting cards to wrapping paper to the holiday table itself. Known botanically as Hippeastrum, they trace their origin to a number of Hippeastrum species that inhabit the anything-but-wintry forests and slopes of tropical South America. Plant hybridizers have interbred these species over the past 250 years, ultimately producing the showy-flowered, large-bulbed amaryllis hybrids that populate garden centers and bulb catalogs in fall.

Amaryllis gifts — Amaryllis, and other bulbs for forcing, can be found pre-forced or boxed for winter forcing.

Obtaining Amaryllis

Purchased amaryllis bulbs put on a lavish display with ridiculous ease. Most come from overseas growers, who have conditioned the bulbs to provide immediate gratification upon planting. Take an amaryllis bulb, half-bury it in a free-draining potting mix (such as Fafard® Natural & Organic Potting Soil with Resilience™), add water, and – voila – it happens. Plump, spear-shaped buds arise on thick fleshy stems, achieving spectacular full bloom within a few weeks after planting.

Many amaryllis are sold pre-installed in a plastic pot. More satisfactory, however, is a deep clay pot, which provides ballast to counterbalance the weight of the huge blooms. Plant the bulb with its top half exposed, to give the roots maximum growing space. Bright light and relatively cool temperatures (60 to 65 degrees F) result in stockier growth, which also discourages toppling. An east-facing windowsill is ideal.

Bringing Amaryllis to Bloom

Bringing purchased amaryllis to bloom is a cinch. Coaxing it to repeat the performance is a trickier proposition. To rebloom, the bulb needs a period of dry rest, approximating what its ancestors experience in the wild. In their native habitats in eastern Brazil and in the foothills of the Andes, most Hippeastrum species produce flowers and foliage during the spring and summer rainy season, becoming quiescent when the weather turns drier in fall and winter.

Amaryllis hybrids in cultivation require a similar wet/dry treatment. Regular watering and feeding after bloom, followed by withdrawal of water in summer, will typically trigger a new round of flowering when watering is gradually resumed in late fall. Many amaryllis fanciers move their plants to a partly shaded outdoor location after the last frost date, bringing them back inside for their dry rest period. Plants generally do best if left in their containers and repotted only when absolutely necessary (once every 4 or 5 years should do).

Amaryllis 'Dancing Queen' — Amaryllis ‘Dancing Queen’ is a pretty double form. (photo by Pam Beck)

Dutch Amaryllis

Hybrid amaryllis bloom in a variety of colors, sizes, and shapes. Best known are the large-flowered Dutch hybrids, with immense, wide-flaring, six-petaled blooms that owe much of their form and coloration to the red-flowered Bolivian native Hippeastrum leopoldii. Old-time favorites from this group include ‘Red Lion’ (introduced in 1958), pink-striped ‘Apple Blossom’ (1954), and white, crimson-edged ‘Picotee’ (1958). More recent introductions – such as velvety burgundy-maroon ‘Red Pearl’ and tangerine ‘Naranja’ – are gradually supplanting some of the old standbys. Also relatively new to the scene are a race of Dutch Hybrids that bloom in 4 to 6 weeks from planting, rather than the typical 8 to 10. These “Christmas-Flowering” amaryllis come in the customary range of whites, pinks, and reds.

Double Dutch Amaryllis

Other hybrid groups include double-flowered Dutch Hybrids (such as purple-red-striped ‘Double Record’ and pure white ‘Ice Queen’) and miniature amaryllis. The latter have the appearance of scaled-down Dutch Hybrids, bearing 3- to 4-inch (rather than 8- to 10-inch) blooms on somewhat shorter stems (10 to 16 rather than 18 to 24 inches).

Butterfly Amaryllis

Hippeastrum aficionados have many more groups of hybrids to explore, as well as the species themselves. Selections and hybrids of the butterfly amaryllis, Hippeastrum papilio, offer several takes on its curious green and maroon, asymmetrical flowers (look for ‘Grafitti’ and ‘Papilio Improved’). Hippeastrum cybister has lent its narrow-petaled, spidery form to a growing number of hybrids including ‘Chico, ‘La Paz’, and ‘Emerald’. And trumpet-flowered amaryllis such as raspberry-striped ‘Santiago’ and candy-pink ‘Estella’ – with elongated, funnel-shaped blooms – are becoming increasingly available from bulb sellers.

Amaryllis in different stages — Amaryllis bulbs at different stages of forcing. (photo by Maureen Gilmer)

Gardeners in USDA zones 7 and warmer can even try amaryllis in the garden. Hardiest of all is St. Joseph’s lily, Hippeastrum x johnsonii, whose trumpet-shaped, crimson, white-starred flowers (on 2-foot stems) have ornamented Southeast U.S. gardens since the mid-nineteenth century. So, too, have the dazzling crimson blooms of oxblood lily, Rhodophiala bifida, which look for all the world like dwarf amaryllis (indeed, the species was formerly included among the Hippeastrum). Both make wonderful subjects for gardens from the Mid-Atlantic southward, the trumpets of oxblood lily providing a late-summer echo of St. Joseph’s lily’s spring display. Dutch Hybrids (and many other Hippeastrum hybrids and species) are candidates for gardens in the lower South, where they’ll winter over with minimal protection.

Whatever their season or place of bloom, few bulbs bring greater cheer than the members of the Hippeastrum tribe.

Bulb Specialist Russell Stafford on the Best Spring Bulbs

Iris reticulata 'Michael's Angel' — The clear blue color of *Iris reticulata* ‘Michael’s Angel’ pairs beautifully with golden crocus.

Flower bulbs can’t be beat for bringing bursts of color to the garden. And they do it in such delightful fashion – their shoots thrusting up almost magically from the seemingly unoccupied ground in sudden crescendos of bloom. Then, just as suddenly, they pass from the scene, returning to the ground to wait out the months until their next brief fling.

The Siberian trout lily 'Altai Snow' is rare but worth seeking out. — The Siberian trout lily ‘Altai Snow’ is rare but worth seeking out.

Most garden bulbs (which botanically speaking comprise plants that grow from tubers, rhizomes, corms, true bulbs, or other underground storage organs) owe their fast and furious above-ground lifestyle to the short growing seasons that prevail in their native haunts. Many hardy “bulb” species, for example, hail from regions that receive most of their annual precipitation from late fall to early spring. The steppes and uplands of Central Asia – the ancestral home of many garden bulbs – are a place of long dry summers, cold bitter winters, and brief springs. Long, arid summers also characterize the climates of the bulb-rich Mediterranean and South African Cape regions.

Other bulb species are native to localized plant habitats that experience seasonal shortages of moisture or sunshine. Deciduous woodlands are the spawning ground of many of the most familiar shade-loving bulbs, which complete their above-ground growth in early spring before the canopy chokes out rain and sunlight.

Whatever their land of origin, most hardy bulbs need relatively moist, cool to cold winters and relatively dry summers, developing their roots in late autumn and winter and putting in an above-ground appearance for only a few weeks in spring or fall. Frost-tender bulbs, on the other hand, often come from regions in which rainfall and growth are concentrated in summer.

Corydalis, such as this Corydalis malkensis, come in many forms, all beautiful for spring. — Corydalis, such as this *Corydalis malkensis*, come in many forms, all beautiful for spring.

This is something to keep in mind when placing bulbs in the garden. Of course, a massed annual bedding display of hybrid tulips or hyacinths can be great fun and will work in just about any reasonably good soil. But a perennialized planting of less highly bred bulbs, artfully deployed in the appropriate garden habitat, can be equally compelling. Any garden niche that roughly mimics the conditions of a Central Asia steppe or a
Mediterranean chaparral or a temperate forest understory is fair game for a scattering of naturalized bulbs, which mingle beautifully with herbaceous and woody perennials that derive from the same natural habitat.

Reticulated irises (Iris reticulata and its hybrids) and “species tulips” (such as Tulipa humilis) make natural companions for penstemons, dwarf campanulas, plumbago (Ceratostigma plumbaginoides), low sedums, and other perennials that occur naturally in rocky steppe habitats. Likewise, crocuses, colchicums, cyclamens, and tuberous anemones look right at home with lavender, perennial candytuft (Iberis sempervirens), shrubby sages, and other small shrubs from the Mediterranean. And just about any partly shaded garden niche could benefit from a colony of woodland bulbs such as corydalis (including Corydalis solida) and trout lilies (Erythronium spp.).

A sunny garden site that dries out somewhat in summer is likely to be favorable for most sun-loving bulbs. In areas that are subject to summer rain and humidity, a well-drained soil works best. Rock gardens and troughs; embankments; wall plantings; sandy berms – all are ideal locations for grape hyacinths (Muscari spp.), ornamental onions (Allium spp.), and other steppe and Mediterranean natives. Quite a few sun-lovers (including many fritillaries and irises) absolutely require a dry summer rest, rotting away in warm moist conditions. Conversely, most woodland bulbs are relatively unfussy, thriving in just about any partly shaded site.

Species tulips (Tulipa bifloriformis shown) are often reliable perennials that spread over time. — Species tulips (*Tulipa bifloriformis* shown) are often reliable perennials that spread over time.

Whatever their favored exposure, bulbs tend to do best in relatively rich soil, and will usually benefit from a sprinkling of high-potassium fertilizer in early fall or spring. For excessively dry or heavy soil, incorporate a good amendment for fertility such as Fafard® Sphagnum Peat Moss and/or Compost. A general rule of thumb is to plant bulbs at a depth of 2 to 3 times their diameter (from the soil surface to their tips). Bulbs (such as crocuses and tulips) that are favorite morsels for chipmunks and squirrels may need protection such as a hardware cloth barrier (or interplant them with bulbs that rodents tend to avoid, such as narcissus and alliums).

The right bulbs in the right place will add a seasonal spark to any garden. Plant some this fall to reap your reward next spring, and beyond!

Flowering Shrubs for Fall

Lespedeza thunbergii 'Gibraltar' — The pink flowers of *Lespedeza thunbergii* ‘Gibraltar’ add welcome color to the late-season landscape.

Late summer and fall is a time when most gardens (and gardeners) could use a bit of a pick-me-up. And no plants are better suited for the job than the relatively few shrubs that flower in the growing season’s waning weeks. Whether used as single specimens to spice up drab niches, or combined with other colorful fall plants (such as autumn crocus, Japanese anemones, beautyberries, goldenrods, and sourwood) in a collective blaze of autumnal glory, fall-blooming shrubs are essential elements of a four-season garden.

Hibiscus syriacus 'Helene' — Hibiscus syriacus ‘Helene’ is one of the prettier varieties of this late-season bloomer.

Quite a few fall-blooming shrubs commence flowering in spring or summer, thus providing multi-season display. Among the longest-blooming of this lot is Daphne × transatlantica. A parent (along with Daphne cneorum) of the much more widely grown Daphne × burkwoodii, this small shrub produces flushes of bloom from mid-spring to fall, long after ‘Carol Mackie’ and other burkwoodii cultivars have ceased flowering. With its clustered, frosty-white, fragrant blooms and dainty, blue-tinged, semi-evergreen leaves, it makes an ideal candidate for a pathside or patio planting. Its variegated cultivar ‘Summer Ice’ has creamy-white leaf margins. Plants are hardy to USDA Hardiness Zone 5, and are best sited where their rather brittle branches will not be subjected to extra-heavy snow loads.

More familiar to gardeners are several other shrubs that flower from summer into early fall. Butterfly bush (Buddleia davidii) produces large candles of fragrant flowers in a range from violet to lilac-pink to white. Butterflies adore them. A somewhat cold-tender shrub, butterfly bush is root-hardy to USDA Zone 5, often dying to the ground in the colder sectors of its hardiness range. Even where it’s reliably root-hardy, it usually benefits from a severe pruning in early spring, growing to several feet tall by midsummer. Many cultivars are available, including the outstanding, compact hybrids ‘Ellen’s Blue’, ‘Blue Chip’, and ‘Ice Chip’. This species seeds itself profusely in warmer areas of its range, where it is sometimes considered a nuisance.

Hydrangea paniculata 'Tardiva' — The large flower panicles of Hydrangea paniculata ‘Tardiva’ are large and upright.

Chaste tree (Vitex agnus-castus), like Buddleia davidii, is a large, fragrant-flowered, butterfly-thronged shrub that usually dies to the ground in the northern fringe of its USDA zone 6 to 9 hardiness range (but attains tree-like proportions in warmer districts). The divided, five-fingered leaves are spicily pungent. Steeples of lilac-blue or white blooms appear from late summer to early fall, on stems that grow to several feet in a single season. Notable cultivars of chaste tree include blue-flowered ‘Shoal Creek’ and white ‘Silver Spire’. Vitex fanciers in USDA zone 5 might want to try chaste tree’s hardier relative, Vitex negundo var. incisa, which has more elegant, finely divided foliage and wispy sprays of lilac-blue flowers.

Rose of Sharon (Hibiscus syricacus) is yet another favorite that flowers from summer into early fall. The large, somewhat floppy blooms bear little resemblance to those of their namesake, nor do their lobed, vaguely maple-like leaves. First introduced to gardens in the sixteenth century (or earlier), this large shrub or small tree has given rise to numerous selections with floral colors ranging from blue to violet to burgundy to pink to white. Among the best are the sterile, white-flowered ‘Helene’ and ‘Diana’, which unlike most other cultivars will not self-sow. Hardy to USDA Zone 5, rose of Sharon will recover quickly and bloom if killed back in a severe winter (or if heavily pruned in early spring).

Buddleja davidii 'Peakeep' (PEACOCK™, ENGLISH BUTTERFLY™ SERIES) — The bright flowers of *Buddleja davidii* ‘Peakeep’ (PEACOCK™) will bloom until first frost. (photo by Jessie Keith)

The large, white, cylindrical flower clusters of panicle hydrangea (Hydrangea paniculata) typically appear in midsummer. The cultivar ‘Tardiva’, however, comes into bloom weeks later than most other selections, peaking in late summer and early fall. Lacier and more elongated than those of the familiar peegee hydrangea (Hydrangea paniculata ‘Grandiflora’), the flower clusters are especially large and late on plants that receive a severe pruning in early spring (plants grow to 7 feet tall in one season). This rock-hardy large shrub succeeds into USDA Zone 3.

In contrast to the above shrubs, Thunberg’s bush clover (Lespedeza thunbergii) concentrates all its bloom in September and early October, enveloping its arching branches in a lavish, vibrant display of rose-purple flowers. As with many late-blooming ornamental shrubs, it sometimes dies back in severe winters, returning from the ground to bloom the following autumn. It’s usually sold in the form of ‘Gibralter’, whose 6-foot stems splay under the weight of its prolific flowers. Other cultivars with pink or white flowers are sometimes available. For tidier winter looks, these shrubs can be pruned back in fall and mulched with Fafard Natural & Organic Compost to keep them protected through winter.

Last in flowering time but certainly not in garden value is a species from forests of central and eastern North America. In the wild, witch-hazel (Hamamelis virginiana) forms a large, often straggly understory shrub whose sparse, spidery yellow flowers are hidden among its yellowing leaves from early to mid-autumn. In the garden, however, it’s an entirely different animal – especially in the form of the recently introduced ‘Harvest Moon’. Bearing a showy profusion of relatively large flowers on naked branches, this cultivar’s floral display rivals that of winter-blooming witch-hazels such as ‘Arnold Promise’. Give it a good, humus-rich soil in sun to partial shade and it will develop into a dense 12-foot shrub that acquits itself well even when not dazzling onlookers with its fragrant, sunny blooms. Where space is limited, try ‘Little Suzie’, a compact, 5-foot witch-hazel selection that works well in foundation plantings, hedges, and other tighter niches.

Pruning Summer Flowers

Phlox paniculata 'Nicky' — Tall phlox are midsummer bloomers that will rebloom if the old flowers are pruned back. (photo by Jessie Keith)

Timely summer pruning is the key to more flowers – and less flopping – in the perennial (and annual and shrub) border. Many annuals and perennials bloom better and longer if their spent flowers are regularly pruned – a practice known as deadheading. In addition to boosting floral display, deadheading also prevents self-sowing by fecund perennials and annuals such as spiderwort (Tradescantia), garden phlox (Phlox suffruticosa), and mulleins (Verbascum).

Echinacea 'Marmalade' — Echinaceas produce seeds that are perfect bird forage, so you may rethink pruning their seedheads back.

Different plants favor different deadheading regimes. Some perennials require minimal deadheading other than a hard pruning back to their basal foliage as their last flowers fade. Among these are columbine (Aquilegia), Delphinium, most catmints (Nepeta) and Salvia, most perennial geraniums, lungwort (Pulmonaria), mountain bluet (Centaurea montana), and lamb’s ear (Stachys byzantina). Many of these will send up a second round of flowers later in the season.

Numerous long-blooming perennials – including bellflowers (Campanula), balloon flower (Platycodon), Jupiter’s beard (Centranthus ruber), Shasta daisy (Chrysanthemum × superbum), bee balm (Monarda), most Veronica, garden phlox, and daylilies (Hemerocallis) – do best with frequent deadheading of individual flowers or flower clusters. In most cases, the cut should be made just above the next bud or leaf below the spent flower(s).
Similarly, most long-blooming annuals benefit from regular, light deadheading, although heavier pruning may be necessary if growth flags in summer (as sometimes happens with diascias, sweet alyssum, and others).
Shrubby perennials that flower relatively briefly (e.g., goatsbeard and Cimicfuga) usually require nothing more than a single tip-pruning after they bloom.

Some plants are better not deadheaded, particularly if their seeds are valued for ornament (as with nigellas and shrubby Clematis), bird forage (e.g., echinaceas and rudbeckias), or self-sowing. Knowing when not to prune is also important!

Lamb's ears — Lamb’s ears always look better when the old bloom stalks are removed.

Deadheading is not the only type of pruning that benefits perennials. A good early-summer (or late-spring) shearing can do wonders for large, late-blooming species with unruly habits such as asters, Joe Pye weed (Eupatorium), and perennial sunflowers (Helianthus). Left unchecked, the statuesque stems of these perennials topple under the weight of their flowers.

A far better solution than trussing them with stakes and string after they flop is to cut them back halfway in June. Shorter, sturdier, swoon-resistant plants will result. Flowers may be a bit later and smaller than those of unpruned plants, but they’ll also be abundant and upright.
June is also the ideal time to prune lanky early-blooming perennials such as moss phlox (Phlox subulata), Dianthus, and perennial candytuft (Iberis). Sheared back halfway immediately after flowering, they’ll produce fresh basal growth and possibly a few repeat blooms. Straggly stems of lavender, sage, and other woody-based perennials respond well to pruning in early spring, before bloom.

Blanketflower will bloom until frost if you keep the seedheads clipped off.

And then there are shrubs. Weigela, mock-oranges (Philadelphus), Deutzia, and other shrubs of similar growth habit should be cut back hard to vigorous new lateral shoots that break growth as the flowers fade in late spring and early summer. These new shoots will eventually provide next year’s floral display. Unpruned shrubs from this group decline into a lanky mass of leggy stems topped with old, unproductive wood that chokes out new growth.

Numerous other spring-blooming shrubs (including rhododendrons and lilacs) exhibit a somewhat different growth pattern, bearing relatively short new shoots mostly at their tips. Consequently, they generally do best with a relatively light early summer pruning, with care taken to preserve as much new growth as possible (which will give rise to next year’s flowers).
Whatever the plant – shrub, perennial, or annual – it will respond well to a post-pruning application of a nutrient-rich compost such as Fafard Natural & Organic Compost. Fertile soil and proper pruning make for happy plants (and gardeners!).

Battling Garden Weeds Naturally

A hand hoe with flowers — A good hand hoe makes the weeding process much easier!

Weeds are half the battle of gardening. And the key to winning that battle is to know your enemy.

Cover the Soil Seed Bank

Weeds use several strategies to sneak into your garden. One is via the soil seed bank. Each cubic foot of soil typically contains hundreds or even thousands of weed seeds (some of which remain viable for decades). Turn the soil, and you will likely liberate enough buried seeds to turn your garden into a weed party. To prevent this from happening, keep those seeds well buried. Shallow-till only, and if any weeds do germinate, use the appropriate strategy to control them (see below). If you must deeply disturb the soil, follow up with some mulch to inhibit weed germination, or with a couple of shallow hoeings to inhibit seed germination and establishment. A scuffle hoe or Japanese hand hoe should be in the weaponry of any serious gardener.

Celandine (Chelidonium majus) — Celandine (*Chelidonium majus*) is a problematic weed in New England.

Weed Seed Solarization

Summer solarization is another strategy for dealing with soil disturbance. Rake and level the disturbed area, water it thoroughly, and cover it (and a 1-foot margin) with clear greenhouse polyethylene. Remove the poly in a month or so, after the weed seeds have been thoroughly cooked.
Herbicides should be a last resort and are usually not necessary.
Weed seeds can also arrive from outside the garden, mostly by air (think dandelions) or via introduced soil and soil amendments (compost, potting mix, etc.). Thwart airborne seeds by removing or cutting back neighboring plants that might have your garden on their flight itinerary. Mulched, densely planted gardens are less vulnerable to seeds that do manage to fly in.
Seeds that arrive by soil require a different kind of vigilance (and wariness). Any soil or soil amendments from outside the garden should be considered guilty of weed seed contamination until proven innocent. Always err on the side of caution when adding them. Fafard products such as Fafard Garden Manure Blend and Natural & Organic Compost make safe and reliable conditioners for your soil.

Pokeweed is a common weedy pest across much of the eastern United States.

Some weeds invade not by seed but by rampant vegetative growth such as underground rhizomes. Plants with thuggish growth habits are best kept at a distance from those of more restrained growth. When this is not possible (as when lawn abuts a perennial bed), a good half-moon edger is an indispensable tool for keeping pushy neighbors at bay. Cut a 2- to 4-inch-deep mini-trench, sloped toward the garden side and steep-walled toward the lawn side. Physical barriers such as plastic or metal edging (or a good wide path) can also work to separate plants that have incompatible behaviors.

Whatever measures you take to exclude them, some weeds will invade – and the best way to deal with them depends on which lifestyle they follow. Shallow tilling makes short work of most annual and biennial weeds, as do flame weeders and dehydrating fatty-acid herbicides (such as Avenger). Pulling these short-lived plants is wasted effort or worse because it often brings weed seeds to the surface along with the roots.

Shallow tilling will also eliminate most clump-forming, fibrous-rooted perennials, although some will require repeat treatments. Aggressive or tap-rooted perennials pose greater challenges, however. Once established, they can be virtually impossible to eradicate. Quackgrass (Elymus repens), bindweed (Convolvulus arvensis), pokeweed (Phytolacca americana), red sorrel (Rumex acetosella), celandine (Chelidonium majus) and curly dock (Rumex crispus) are among the weeds that will wreak horticultural havoc if they’re allowed to set up shop in your garden.

It all comes back to knowing your enemy. If you know your local weeds and their growth patterns, you’ll also know the best way to respond.

Growing Raspberries and Blackberries

Wild blackberries — Freshly picked wild blackberries. (Image by Loadmaster)

Few summer treats can compare to a bowl of sweet fresh-picked raspberries or blackberries. Borne on the brambly stems (or “canes”) of shrubs in the genus Rubus, these toothsome morsels are about as delectable as hardy fruits get. And thanks to the efforts of modern breeders, growing raspberries and blackberries is easier than ever. There’s a brambly berry for just about every culinary garden!

Black raspberries (Rubus occidentalis) — Black raspberries (*Rubus occidentalis*) ready for the picking. (image care of USDA, ARS)

What are Brambles?

Botanically speaking, each raspberry or blackberry is in fact a cluster (or “aggregate”) of fused, fleshy seed capsules, individually known as drupelets. The drupelets develop on the domed centers of the white, often inconspicuous, bee-pollinated flowers.

Bramble berries come in several colors including red, orange, yellow, purple, and black, with numerous hybrids between the variously colored types. Most brambles are hardy into colder regions of the United States (USDA Hardiness Zone 5 or so), but some are best suited for milder climes.

Fortunately, perhaps the hardiest of the lot are the red raspberries, widely regarded as the cream of the bramble crop. All derive from Rubus idaeus, a prickly, suckering shrub native to much of the temperate Northern Hemisphere. Hundreds of selections and hybrids of the species are in cultivation, each selected for the flavor, abundance, and timing of its fruits.

Standard forms of red raspberry flower and fruit on the growth of the previous year, ripening their fruits in early summer. So-called everbearing varieties go them one crop better by also producing blooms and berries in late summer on the current season’s growth (known as “primocanes”). Everbearing raspberries can be tip-pruned in early spring for two crops, or sheared close to the ground for a single large late-season harvest.

Colorful Rubus berries — A colorful mix of *Rubus* berries. (image care of USDA, ARS)

Growing Red Raspberries

Red raspberry plants thrive in sun and fertile humus-rich soil (amend or mulch lean or heavy soil with a good compost such as Fafard Premium Natural & Organic Compost). Plant the canes in widely spaced rows (10 feet or so apart), removing suckers that wander more than a couple feet from the rows’ centers.

Recommended summer-fruiting varieties include ‘Killarney’, ‘Nova’ (which fruits a bit later than ‘Killarney’), and ‘Encore’ (which ripens later still). Everbearing red raspberries include ’Autumn Bliss’ and ‘Heritage’ (the latter bearing its fall crop too late for areas with short growing seasons). Yellow-fruited cultivars of Rubus idaeus include ‘Anne’ and ‘Fallgold’ (both everbearing).

Growing Black Raspberries

The eastern U.S. native Rubus occidentalis – commonly known as black raspberry – has sired several cultivars that make excellent choices for cold-climate gardens. The aromatic, dome-shaped berries mature to purple-black in late spring or early summer, depending on the variety. Look for the large-fruited, midseason-bearing ‘Jewel’, and the relatively early-fruiting ‘Haut’.

Black raspberries have similar soil and sun requirements to those of their red kin. Plant them (as well as blackberries and purple raspberries) at 4-foot intervals in rows spaced 8 to 12 feet apart. Prune the tips of black raspberry (and blackberry) primocanes in spring as soon as they reach full height, and remove all second-year canes after they fruit.

Red raspberries — Sweet, red raspberries are a real summer treat!

Growing Blackberries

Least hardy of the brambles are the group known as blackberries, a complex swarm of cultivars deriving from a hodgepodge of species. Their large, relatively elongated fruits ripen as the black raspberry season comes to a close. Relatively few blackberry cultivars are reliably hardy north of USDA Zone 6, and many hit their stride only in mild-winter areas such as the Southeast and Pacific Northwest. Among the best of the hardiest cultivars are ‘Darrow’ and ‘Illini Hardy’, which succeed into USDA Zone 5.

Gardeners in warmer districts can choose from a broad array of blackberries, including numerous thornless, semi-erect cultivars developed by the University of Arkansas and other breeding programs.

Crosses between red raspberries and black raspberries have yielded yet another tribe of brambles: purple raspberries. Intermediate in color, size, and hardiness between the two parent types, this group is best known by the cultivar ‘Brandywine’, whose large, flavorful, tart fruits come later than those of most other raspberries. Other notable cultivars include ‘Royalty’ and ‘Success’.

The various colors and seasons of bloom of modern raspberry and blackberry varieties offer a spectrum of delicious possibilities for bramble fanciers. Continuous spring-to fall harvest of berries is there for the growing, in a rainbow of colors. It’s a great time to be a bramblephile.

Blackberries — Thornless blackberries are easier to harvest!

Native Wildflowers for the Garden

Spring Virginia bluebells in woodland - April 2007 — Spring Virginia bluebells blanket a woodland garden floor. (Image by Jessie Keith)

America’s eastern native plants are a national treasure. They also offer a wealth of material for American gardens. This is perhaps most evident in spring, when many of the most beautiful native wildflowers strut their stuff in our fields, forests, or perennial borders.

Bloodroot

Among the first of these to bloom is one of the queens of the Eastern forest, bloodroot (Sanguinaria canadensis). Its broad, scalloped, kidney-shaped leaves unfurl in early spring, sending forth dainty, white, short-stemmed flowers that shatter within a few days of opening. Far longer lasting, however, are the breathtaking double blooms of the cultivar ‘Multiplex’, whose sublime form would do the finest waterlily proud. In whatever form, bloodroot makes a wonderful subject for massing and naturalizing in dappled shade. A moist, relatively coarse soil suits it best (amend heavy or sandy soils with a good compost such as Fafard Premium Natural & Organic Compost).

Virginia Bluebells

Another first-rate naturalizer for moist shade, Virginia bluebells (Mertensia virginica) sends up clusters of nodding, long-necked bell-flowers that morph from pale pink to summer-sky-blue upon opening in early- to mid-spring. The 15- to 18-inch-tall plants are well furnished with broad, blue-dusted leaves that tone prettily with the flowers. As bloom fades, so does the rest of the plant, yellowing and dwindling to a thick fleshy rootstock in late spring. Colonies of seedlings often follow. Wild-collected roots and plants of Virginia bluebell are sometimes sold by disreputable dealers, so buyer beware.

Celandine Poppy

Celandine poppies add a golden glow to the spring wildflower garden (Image by Josve05a)

With its sunny yellow mid-spring flowers and penchant for self-sowing, celandine poppy (Stylophorum diphyllum) makes an excellent shade-garden companion for Virginia bluebells. The 2-inch-wide, crepe-textured, four-petaled poppies are borne atop 18-inch clumps of bold foliage with oakleaf-shaped lobes. Bristly seedpods resembling miniature gourds ripen in late spring, with dormancy (and enthusiastic self-sowing) ensuing. Both celandine poppy and Virginia bluebells work well with other, more persistent woodlanders (such as ferns and Solomon’s seal) that fill the gaps left by their early exit.

Woodland Phlox

Although many native woodland perennials die back after blooming in spring, some stay around for the long haul. These include two species of Phlox that make excellent subjects for borders or naturalistic plantings. Woodland phlox (Phlox divaricata) produces drifts of fragrant, five-petaled blooms on wiry, foot-tall stems with paired, pointed leaves. The flowers are typically periwinkle-blue, but white, violet, and other colors occur in the wild and in cultivation. Their form and hue combine effectively with Virginia bluebells, celandine poppy, white trilliums, wild geraniums, and other wildflowers that bloom in mid-spring. After flowering, plants persist through the growing season and beyond as low semi-evergreen hummocks.

Crested Iris

Yet another splendid spreader for partial shade, crested iris (Iris cristata) grows from knobbly rhizomes that walk along the soil surface, like a bearded iris in miniature. Fanned tufts of arching, 6-inch, blade-shaped leaves give rise to proportionately large blooms that slightly over top the foliage in mid-spring. Flower color ranges from violet-blue to white, with contrasting yellow and white markings. Several cultivars are available. A lightly shaded site with moist, fertile, relatively porous soil is ideal.

All of these – and many more besides (including Geranium maculatum, Hepatica acutiloba, Trillium grandiflorum, Delphinium tricorne, Tiarella cordifolia, Polemonium reptans, and Uvularia grandiflora) – are essential plants for any eastern North American garden that seeks to embody a sense of place.

All About Growing Tulips

Tulipa red striped lily — Lily-flowered tulips have pointed petals that open wide from vase-shaped buds. (Photo by Jessie Keith)

What would spring be without tulips? Their large, brilliant, jewel-toned flowers, often with playful markings at their centers, are just what we crave after the gloom and cold of winter. Those big bright bowls of color speak directly to our inner child (as well as to children themselves). And with the wide range of varieties available today, tulips can provide a continuous succession of garden brightness from early to late spring.

Tulipa 'Girlfriend' — ‘Girlfriend’ is a beautiful recently introduced hybrid of Tulipa vvdenskyi.

Tulip History

Tulips have been seducing gardeners for centuries. Turkish sultans featured them in their palace gardens in the 15th and 16th centuries, growing numerous hybrids characterized by dazzling colors and claw-shaped petals. From there, tulips made their way to Europe, evolving into the blunt-petaled forms that we associate with the genus (know botanically as Tulipa). By the early seventeenth century, tulips were all the rage in sophisticated European circles, triggering waves of “tulipomania” that built and destroyed fortunes.

Today, we’re fortunate to have thousands of tulip hybrids in numerous shapes and color. Further enriching our gardens are the many Tulipa species that have been introduced to horticulture in the relatively recent past. Horticulturists group cultivated tulips into sixteen “classes” depending on their flowering times, characteristics, and lineage.

Wild Tulips

This vast horticultural treasure trove began with a handful of wild ancestors from Central and West Asia, regions where summers are hot and dry and winters cold and snowy. And even today, most garden tulips flourish in conditions that recall their lands of origin. They need sun and winter chill to bloom, and a relatively dry summer rest to perennialize. If you garden in the northern United States and can offer sunny, not-too-damp conditions, tulips of all types will likely thrive – provided the pests don’t get them (more on this later).

Tulipa 'Elegans Rubra' — The heirloom cultivar ‘Elegans Rubra’ is an early lily-flowered tulip.

Fittingly, tulip season begins just as spring officially arrives, in March and early April. Earliest of all are a number of elfin Tulipa species that are comparable in stature to the Dutch hybrid crocuses that bloom alongside them. Many of these pixies (e.g., Tulipa biflora) open wide in sun to reveal white interiors with central yolks of yellow. Perhaps the queen of the early-risers is Tulipa humilis, which blooms in a variety of eye-catching hues including purple, pink, and white, with contrasting eyes.

Hybrid Tulips

A number of larger-flowered hybrids follow closely upon these earliest tulips. Kaufmanniana Hybrids (named after the species that sired them) typically have pointed, white or yellow, red-flamed blooms, with broad basal leaves that often bear showy bronze mottling. Single Early Tulips (such as ‘Apricot Giant’ and ‘Coleur Cardinal’) open their large, goblet-shaped blooms on short sturdy stems just as the Kaufmannianas are peaking, in early to mid-April. Then in the next few weeks comes a succession of other tulip classes, most notably:

Fosteriana Hybrids (including the famed ‘Emperor’ cultivars), prized for their huge, brightly colored flowers on relatively compact stems.
Greigii Hybrids, short in stature, with large cupped flowers and gray-green, maroon-splotched leaves.
Triumph Tulips, marked by their elegant, sturdy flowers and strong tall stems that stand up to inclement weather. Most bloom in the pastel range and many have contrasting petal margins.
Darwin Hybrids, combining the height of the Single Late Tulips with the immense brilliant blooms of the Fosteriana Hybrids, and flowering between these two parent classes.
Single Late Tulips, blooming well into May in a wide range of rich colors, on stems that typically exceed 26 inches.
Lily-flowered Tulips, named for their pointed petals that open wide from vase-shaped buds.
Double Late Tulips (such as ‘Angelique’), among the last to bloom, with peony-shaped flowers in mid- to late May.

*Tulipa clusiana* is well adapted to Southern and California gardens.

Altogether, tulip hybrids and species provide more than 2 months of bloom and endless ornamental possibilities. Many species and smaller-flowered hybrids mingle beautifully with other late winter and early spring perennials, both in formal borders and in less formal settings such as cottage gardens. For bold splashes of spring color, nothing beats the large-flowered hybrids, whether in massed bedding schemes or grouped in mixed borders. Some species even naturalize well, persisting and sometimes increasing in garden conditions that are to their liking.
Many tulips also “force” easily in pots, brightening the winter months (see “Forcing Bulbs for Winter Cheer”). Single Early and Fosteriana cultivars are among the best for this purpose.

Planting Tulips

Outdoors, plant tulips in late summer or early fall in a sunny exposure (after the first frost is often a good time). Fertile, not too heavy soil is best (amend sandy or clay soils with an organic compost such as Fafard Premium Natural & Organic Compost). Although often treated as annuals, tulips of all classes will usually return for several years of bloom if planted deep (6 inches or more below the soil surface). Deep planting also helps protect the bulbs from their chief bane – squirrels and other furry pests. Inter-plant tulips with rodent- and deer-resistant bulbs such as daffodils to further deter these herbivores.

A few tulips will even bloom and persist where winters are “too warm” for them. Tulipa clusiana – often dubbed “lipstick tulip” for the red central bands that mark its outer petals – grows and flowers reliably in areas such as California, the Desert Southwest, and the Deep South. Others to try in these regions include Tulipa saxatilis and the previously mentioned Tulipa sylvestris. Tulips offer spring-long possibilities wherever and whatever the garden.

Articles